--------------------------------------------------------------------------- ####### ######## ######## ########### ### ### ## ### ## # ### # Interpersonal Computing and ### ### ## ### ## ### Technology: ### ### ## ### ### An Electronic Journal for ### ######## ### ### the 21st Century ### ### ### ### ### ### ### ## ### ISSN: 1064-4326 ### ### ### ## ### April 1996 ####### ### ######## ### Volume 4, Number 2, pp. 27-36 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Published by the Department of Education University of Maryland Baltimore County Additional support provided by Georgetown University This article is archived as MILLER IPCTV4N2 on LISTSERV@LISTSERV.GEORGETOWN.EDU ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Page 27 + GIRLS' PREFERENCES IN SOFTWARE DESIGN: INSIGHTS FROM A FOCUS GROUP Leslie Miller, Melissa Chaika, and Laura Groppe Center for Technology in Teaching and Learning and Center for Research on Parallel Computation INTRODUCTION The challenge of increasing girls' interest in and skills with computers has serious social and economic consequences if left unaddressed. The gender gap in computer interest and skills begins in the early grades (Becker and Sterling, 1987), persists in the home environment, and continues into adulthood (Giaquinta, Bauer & Levin, 1993), leaving girls with limited exposure to female role models with computer expertise. Meanwhile, as technology becomes part of the fabric of our society, computer skills are a more significant factor in the economic deprivation or advancement of large segments of society. It is alarming to note that as recently as 1994, one study (Sakamoto, 1994) indicated that among fourth through sixth grade students considered "heavy users" of computers, the ratio of boys to girls is 4 to 1. Additionally, at the professional and training levels, computer science once attracted equitable numbers of men and women (Linn, 1985); however, recent studies indicate that computer competency is increasingly associated with male achievement, despite evidence that women's potential at least equals men's potential, and despite concurrent increases of females in the sciences (Kiesler, Sproull, & Eccles, 1985). The gender gap in technology has become so profound that it spans everything from the number of female computer science majors to differences in each gender's conceptualizations of their computer ability. Some argue that what was once a gender neutral field has been transformed into a patriarchal bureaucracy (Kiesler, Sproull, & Eccles,1985). The issue becomes one of how to "prime the pump" in an effort to prevent the disenfranchisement of girls from technology and careers in computing. Giacquintta, Bauer, and Levin (1993) found that boys conceptualize computers differently than girls. They are more likely to play games, to program, and to see the computer as a playful recreational toy. Girls tend to view the computer as a tool, a means to accomplish a task, such as word processing or other clerical duties. One hypothesis is that this difference in perception stems from a slanted market and differential access in the home and schools (Ogletree and Williams, 1990; Culley, 1993). + Page 28 + One clear gender difference is that games, which are typically children's first encounter with computing, tend to reinforce the notion that computers are "boy's toys." Characteristics of gaming strategies for computers almost always conform to the characteristics desired by boys. An experiment designed by Huff and Cooper (1987) focused on sex bias in computer program design. Programs designed by computer educators for "seventh-grade boys" and for "seventh graders" in general were similar. In contrast, when educators were asked to design programs for "seventh-grade girls" the programs evidenced a different form and function, thus confirming the researchers' hypothesis that "the expectations software designers hold about the users of the software they design are central in determining the way the software design interacts with the user." The most significant contrast between the designs were that while both "boy" and "student" programs were game oriented (e.g., requiring more eye-hand coordination, quicker reflexes, and more action on the screen), the girl programs were learning tools. Thus, at least on this game-tool dimension, programmers seem to have at some level an awareness that boys' and girls' preferences differ. The work of sociologist Sherry Turkle (1988) regarding "computational reticence" speaks to the larger issue of gender differences in the technological domain. She has articulated two different styles of computing, exhibited in large part along gender lines. The risk-taking style, characterized by testing the limits of both machine and self through mastery and manipulation of the computer environment, is a predominantly male approach. The typically female relational style is "marked by an artistic, almost tactile style of identification with computational objects, a desire to 'play with them' as though they were physical objects in a collage" (p.50). The research of Brunner, et. al. (1990) affirms gender differences in technological imagination. Their results revealed different mindsets toward designing a machine of the future. These findings were true for both adults and adolescents. The researchers concluded, "Women commonly saw technological instruments as people connectors, communication and collaboration devices. The men, in contrast,tended to envision technology as extensions of their power over the physical universe"(p.2). In a design experiment conducted by Yasmin Kafi at the MIT Media Lab (1993), fourth-grade students were asked to teach fractions by designing and programming (in LOGO) computer games for third graders. She offered the following observations with regard to gender differences and the design task. The students' game choices also reflected gender differences. Many of the boys in the Game Design Project chose a game theme and features that resemble commercially available games such as Nintendo. One of the most prominent features included by most boys was the feedback provided to the player. In case of a wrong answer, the figures on the + Page 29 + screen were 'kicked to the moon' (Barney's game), 'turned into an ice cube' (Shaun's game), 'sent frying to the underworld' (Albert's game), or 'mentally transformed' (Trevor's game). Many of the boys' game themes were adventure hunts and explorations, in which players rescued 'a stolen fraction wand, golden snow, or princesses.' Other games incorporated some of these action features without necessarily adopting all of them. For example, the aspect of 'dying' if the player does not succeed wasn't present in all games. In contrast, most girls programmed a different kind of feedback for a wrong answer. In case of a wrong answer, the player continues but does not receive a piece of the map (Amy's game), the player starts from the top of the ski slope again (Miriam's game), the player has to talk in French (Sina's game), or the player does not receive a fraction of the magic power (Tyree's game). Most of the girls' game themes were more oriented towards teaching, skiing, collecting pieces of the map, moving around a spider web, or landing on an airport. The differences in terms of feedback are most pronounced. Whereas girls preferred to hold back something or to have the player start over again, the boys provided more violent feedback: in most cases the player got transformed and the game was over. The boys' games were also, for the most part, about 'getting something,' whereas the girls' games seem to center more around activities as their main attraction (pg. 89-90). The differences in products of game designers, whether they be children or adults, consistently echo the notion that the elements which attract girls to games vary from those which attract boys. With this in mind, researchers posed the following question: "If, as Perry and Greber (1990, pg. 93) suggest, the social patterns of computer use are not inevitable, might it be possible to appropriate the computer for use by girls by having a clearer insight into the nature of girls' preferences in entertainment software as a first step toward more exposure to computers?" Indeed it was this inquiry that motivated researchers to undertake the pilot study described below. THE RESEARCH CONTEXT The National Science Foundation enabled a small-scale pilot study, sponsored by the Center for Research on Parallel Computation at Rice University, to investigate adolescent girls' preferences in currently available computer software and future interactive software. Given the research indicating the different computer perceptions of boys and girls, we thought it most productive to concentrate upon the preferences of a sample + Page 30 + of adolescent girls and to glean guidelines for future software development from a specific age range. Using the results of this pilot study, the researchers intend to craft a more structured research design. Thirty girls from area public and private schools volunteered in response to fliers sent to their schools. The girls received a nominal amount of money ($5.00 per hour) for six hours over a three-day period during the summer to participate in group discussions and exploration of computer software. Ten of the girls were from grades 6-7, ten from 8-9 and ten from 10-12. Half of the girls in each grade range were recruited with the specification that they had "little or no prior computer experience." ("Little or no prior experience" was operationally defined as no access to computers at home and infrequent use of computers at school except for occasional word processing.) The volunteers came to a computer lab at Rice University for two-hour blocks of time, based upon both grade range and prior computer experience. Groups of five girls (e.g., grade 6-7 with no prior experience, grade 6-7 with computer experience) met for three sessions. Session One began with the focus group leader asking the girls to "imagine what they would like technology to do in their wildest dream." The leader encouraged them to expand their notion of technology beyond current limitations. After a discussion of approximately one hour, the girls independently completed a questionnaire of demographic and attitudinal items. The female leader began Session Two on the following day by allowing the participants to select any of the array of software installed on the computers or to explore the Internet via a Web browser. (1) The options were selected to afford a broad range of styles and content. The packaging and manuals were next to each computer and the girls were free to make their own selections. Every 20-25 minutes the girls were asked to select another workstation, unless it became obvious that a girl lost interest in the particular software prior to that time. This sampling process was followed by group discussions in which the girls critiqued each software option, noting the positive and negative characteristics. At the close of the session, the focus group leader asked the girls to note independently their top three choices. (Due to the number of girls and the number of games, not every girl was exposed to every game.) Prior to leaving for the day, the girls were asked to think about gaming ideas at home before Session Three. Session Three began with group conversation about the gaming ideas that they had formulated. The girls came to a consensus about which ideas should be pursued by a prototype. The group leader led further brainstorming about the flow, navigation and + Page 31 + storylines of the ideas selected for approximately 30 minutes. Another female adult then provided instructions for using Movie Works 2.0 Authoring System. She demonstrated how to transform their ideas into computer displays. The girls then worked in teams (for approximately an hour and a half), building two different graphical screens illustrative of critical points of their games. They placed voice-overs and sound effects where appropriate. The final 15 minutes of Session Three were devoted to completion of a brief questionnaire for comparison with data collected in Session One. FINDINGS Because of the self-selection inherent in the recruitment process and the size of the groups, this sample does not purport to be representative of the population as a whole. It does, however, contain girls from both public and private schools, from different ranges of computer exposure, from different age levels, and from different ethnic groups (Hispanic, African-American, Asian-American, and Anglo-American). Within these limitations, the focus group discussions and the written responses by the participants reveal some general phenomena. These phenomena applied across all age groups and experience levels except where noted. o Manual as the Last Resort Phenomenon: Previous research has documented this same phenomenon. The work of Carroll (1990) and Gery (1991) indicates that when users have questions, they proceed in the following order -- try and see what happens, ask another user, call the vendor, search on-line documentation, read the manual. The adolescent girls evidenced some of the same patterns. If the game or environment was not self-revealing, the girls were not motivated to pursue written explanations in a manual. Every participant was informed that the manual for each game was beside the machine, yet if her attempts to use the software were not easily rewarded, she would look around for another available computer, or if none were available, she would ask the person next to her for help. o Non-closure/Exploration Phenomenon: The participants did not seem to need to reach closure before moving onto another game or segment of a game. They seemed to prefer moving freely among environments without "completing" or winning one. The contrasting paradigm - that players will continue until they win or move to the next level - which usually appears in popular gaming software, was not observed at any of the sessions. Experience with the computer did not have a bearing on this phenomenon. One of the attractions of the _Myst_ environment seemed to be the ability to explore in an unstructured way. In _Myst_, there were no clocks ticking or "points to be earned." + Page 32 + o Rich Texture Phenomenon: The girls placed a high value on the quality of the visual and audio design of an environment. Music, atmosphere and voice quality were all factors that the girls described as important. The girls found the computer-esque drones that are commonly heard in video games to be very "off-putting." The richer the "texture" of the environment, the more it appealed to the girls. All participants advocated multi-sensory presentations. Several of the older girls complained that "Super Tetris," despite the challenging aspect of the game, had "no music." o Collaboration over Competition Phenomenon: Many of the participants expressed a desire that a game be "challenging, and include elements of problem solving, but not to the point of causing frustration." The girls wanted the activity to challenge them, but they did not view winning as a necessary objective. They placed priority on "having a good experience" and wanted the game to include features that offered supportive feedback. o Education vs. Entertainment Phenomenon: We observed a difference between age groups regarding their preferences for environments that entertained, as opposed to those that were more educational. The younger girls, regardless of computer experience, preferred the entertainment environment, while the older girls (grades 10-12) preferred the more informational options. One example was _Oceans Below_, which plays more like a documentary of scuba diving locations around the globe than a game. This software was overwhelmingly popular in the high school groups, while the middle school girls were bored by it and wanted an overall gaming plot to be incorporated. Comments from the girls portraying these attitudes were similar to these from an eighth-grade girl: "This game has educational value, but it is boring to me because I don't know how to dive and I am not interested in learning about the plants and animals." In contrast, the older girls' (grades 10-12) comments were more positive, such as "Learned about and saw places I'll probably never get to see in person! Liked the music and pictures! Very interesting--especially liked the action photo shots. They made the whole dive more realistic. It was like watching PBS with being able to edit out what you don't really want to hear. Good game!" Based upon the results of the "Imagine and Design a New Game" portion of the sessions, several elements emerged from the girls' discussions and designs. o Virtual Reality: Many girls advocated the idea of vicariously experiencing adventures or activities. Their suggestions included bungee jumping, travel, shopping, conference calls with friends, + Page 33 + home/room design and clothing design with the ability to see themselves in the outfit. The most frequent scenario was that of "virtual shopping" (i.e., wandering through a mall and being able to "try on different outfits" with or without a budget. o Career Exploration: Providing real life simulations and role-playing associated with a variety of careers gained the girls' interest. Themes such as "experience life as a (name a career)" were seen as a way for the girls to understand what life might be like in these roles and to determine what the salary expectations, educational background, and lifestyles might be like. o Interactions with Males: Perhaps somewhat related to teen magazine components, the girls thought about a scenario in which one could find their "dream match" by inputting personality traits and finding out which characteristics would be compatible. This was followed by a desire to actually "talk on-line" and get advice from boys from different parts of the country. The interest in understanding the opposite sex via computer access was the focus of one game. o Soap Opera/Talk Show Replications: The impact of television was evident in some of the girls' gaming ideas. Girls mentioned the titles of _Melrose Place_, _Fresh Prince_, and _Friends_ and suggested that they "enter the show" through different episodes and play a role. The game would allow them to decide the fate of other characters. In a similar light, the girls envisioned an on-line "talk show" (e.g., _Oprah_ or _Donahue_), but covering topics related to teens, with the girls taking turns serving as "hosts." o Travel and Cross-cultural Communication: An on-line environment revolving around communication with other young people in foreign countries was proposed. The experience would include visual and audio effects and the ability to be in another country and travel without parents. Girls found the opportunity to meet a girl of the same age and travel together for a day or longer appealing. o Open-ended Environments: One of the choices among the workstations was browsing the Internet using _Netscape Navigator 1.1_. Girls' reactions to this environment tended to be shaped by their prior knowledge. The students with no prior experience expressed confusion and a sense of being overwhelmed by this tool. "Pretty cool, but I don't really know where I'm going or how to get back. It's very informative and practical. Making it more interactive and adding voice recognition and virtual reality aspects might make it more fun and easier." Some of the girls with prior Internet experience formed analogies about the Internet, for example, "The Internet gives lots of useful information about all subjects. It's like a magazine with different little clippings in it." + Page 34 + CONCLUSIONS and FURTHER RESEARCH A variety of different insights emerged from this examination of girls' preferences with regard to current and future computer entertainment environments -- some preferences reinforced female stereotypes. Clearly the imprints of many societal messages are well-embedded by the teenage years. Yet, this finding points to the need for well-designed games for the specifically female audience, whose expectations and derived satisfaction from a computer game environment are qualitatively different from many of the current options. The argument for offering options that take into account female styles of conceptualization and interaction seems even more compelling in light of the insights from this focus group and the weight of previous research. The inevitability of a pervasive male market for computer games should be reconsidered in light of opportunities to design software with female-preferred characteristics. Questions arise as to the role ethnicity and cultural background might play in girls' preferences. Age level and computer experience were sources of differences in this study. Further research with more homogeneous groups of girls within specific age and ethnic groups would provide insights into the paradigms that best fit game design strategies. Using girls' imaginations and learning styles as the starting point, rather than expecting girls to be accommodated by male-produced and accepted games is the next step in providing alternatives that may ultimately lead to re-capturing girls' interests in computing and its associated professional opportunities. REFERENCES Becker, H.J. & Sterling, C.W. (1987). Equity in school computer use: National data and neglected considerations. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 3, 289-312. Brunner, C., Bennet, D., Clements, M., Hawkins, J. Honey, M. & Moeller, B. (1990). Gender and technological imagination. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Carroll, J. (1990). The Nurnberg Funnel: Designing minimalist instructions for practical computer skill. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Culley, L. (1993) Gender equity and computing in secondary schools: Issues and strategies for teachers. In Benyon, J. & MacKay H. (Eds.). Computers into Classrooms. The Falmer Press: Great Britian. + Page 35 + Gery, G. J. (1991). Electronic performance support systems. Boston: Weingarten Publications. Giacquinta, J.B., Bauer, J.A., & Levin, J.E. (1993). Beyond technology's promise. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Huff, C. & Cooper, J. (1987). Sex bias in educational software: The effect of designers' stereotypes on the software they design. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17(6), 519-532. Kafi, Y. B. (1993). Minds in play: computer game design as a context for children's learning. Doctoral Dissertation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Education. Kiesler, S., Sproull, L. & Eccles, J. (1985). Poolhalls, chips and war games: Women in the culture of computing. Psychology of Women Quarterly, (4), 451-62. Linn, M.C. (1985). Fostering equitable consequences from computer learning environments. Sex Roles, 13, 229-240. Newton, P. & Beck, E. (1993). Computing: An ideal occupation for women? (1993). In Benyon, J. & MacKay H. (Eds.). Computers into Classrooms. The Falmer Press: Great Britian. Ogletree, S.M. & Williams, S.W. (1990) Sex and set-typing effects on computer attitudes and aptitude. Sex Roles, 23 (11/12), 703-712. Perry, R. & Greber, L. (1990) Women and computers: An introduction. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 16 (11), 74-101. Sakamoto, A. (1994). Video game use and the development of socio-cognitive abilities in children: Three surveys of elementary school students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 21-24. Turkle, S. (1988). Computational reticence: Why women fear the intimate machine. In C. Kramarae (Ed.), Technology and Women's Voices. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was undertaken with support from the National Science Foundation through a grant to the Center for Research on Parallel Computation (CRPC) at Rice University. The CRPC is a National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center whose mission includes encouraging women and minorities to prepare for and pursue careers in the computational sciences. Special thanks to Ken Kennedy, Kathy El-Messidi, and Debbie Campbell. ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Page 36 + ENDNOTES 1 The options offered were: Alone in the Dark [computer software]. (1994). Irvine, California: Interplay. Cosmology of Kyoto [computer software]. (1993). Japan: YANO Electric Company , Ltd. The Lost Mind of Dr. Brain [computer software]. (1995). Bellevue, Washington: Sierra OnLine. Kid Pix 2 [computer software]. (1994). Novato, California: Broderbund. Mad Dog McCree [computer software]. (1990). Albuquerque, New Mexico: American Laser Games. Myst [computer software]. (1993). Novata, California: Broderbund. Navigator 1.1 [computer software]. (1995). Mountain View, California: Netscape Communications Corp. Oceans Below [computer software]. (1993). San Anselmo, California: Amazing Media. Oregon Trail II [computer software]. (1994). Minneapolis, Minnesota: MECC. Super Tetris [computer software]. (1992). Alameda, California: Spectrum HoloByte. Theme Park [computer software]. (1994). London, England, United Kingdom: Bullfrog Productions Ltd. ---------------------------------------------------------------- BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Leslie Miller is a Senior Research Scholar in the Center for Technology in Teaching and Learning at Rice University. She received her Ph.D. in Communications from the University of Texas and has worked extensively in K-12 education with an interest in the impacts of technology on the learning process. Melissa Chaika is a senior at Rice University who will graduate with a bachelor's degree in sociology and educational policy studies in May 1996. Her honors thesis focuses on gender-oriented entertainment software. Laura Groppe is president of Girls Games, Inc., a company specifically devoted to the production of software for girls. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century Copyright 1996 University of Maryland Baltimore County. Copyright of individual articles in this publication is retained by the individual authors. Copyright of the compilation as a whole is held by the University of Maryland Baltimore County. It is asked that any republication of this article state that the article was first published in IPCT-J. Contributions to IPCT-J can be submitted by electronic mail in APA style to: Susan Barnes, Editor IPCT-J SBBARNES@PIPLELINE.COM